![]() Music affects many aspects of human behavior, behaviors that may have had (and still have) adaptive benefits that presumably contribute to the ongoing existence of musicality in humans (e.g., Cross, 2009 Harvey, 2018). Language and the emergence and continued development of human culture seem to be closely intertwined, but then why do we also communicate and enjoy music and its partner dance? Why does music continue as a human universal and what is its significance to the species? Language plays an essential role in cognition it is the primary means by which modern humans communicate thoughts and ideas, it facilitates the sharing of learned information and knowledge within and between generations, it permits intuitive reasoning, foresight, and planning, and it likely co-evolved with our capacity to imagine times and places not personally experienced in our lifetime ( Harvey, 2017). The possible evolutionary origin of musical behaviors in our species has been discussed elsewhere (e.g., Brown, 2000 Mithen, 2005 Fitch, 2006 Patel, 2008 Morley, 2013 Richter and Ostovar, 2016 Harvey, 2017) and is not considered in detail here. These communication streams possess some common elements, for example, a requirement for processing certain aspects of pitch, rhythm, and syntax however, there are also well-established differences in neural circuitry that are linked to differences in functionality. ![]() The human species has evolved two universal systems of inter-personal communication, language, and music. Finally, it is suggested that there is a potential synergy in combining oxytocin- and music-based strategies to improve general health and aid in the treatment of various neurological dysfunctions. It is argued that many of these characteristics of oxytocin biology closely mirror the diverse effects that music has on human cognition and emotion, providing a link to the important role music has played throughout human evolutionary history and helping to explain why music remains a special prosocial human asset. First, how endogenous oxytocin levels relate to individual personality traits, and then how exogenous, intranasal application of oxytocin affects behaviors such as trust, empathy, reciprocity, group conformity, anxiety, and overall social decision making under different environmental conditions. Next, the complex links between oxytocin and various social behaviors in humans are considered. I will first briefly discuss what is currently known about the peptide’s physiological actions on neurons and its interactions with other neuromodulator systems, then summarize recent advances in our knowledge of the distribution of oxytocin and its receptor (OXTR) in the human brain. In this review these special characteristics of music are considered in light of recent research on the neuroscience of the peptide oxytocin, a hormone that has both peripheral and central actions, that plays a role in many complex human behaviors, and whose expression has recently been reported to be affected by music-related activities. Music, presumably via its impact on the limbic system, is also rewarding and motivating, and music can facilitate aspects of learning and memory. Music affects many aspects of human behavior, especially in encouraging prosocial interactions and promoting trust and cooperation within groups of culturally compatible but not necessarily genetically related individuals. ![]() ![]() Functional imaging studies have revealed that some core elements of these two systems are processed in closely related brain regions, but there are also clear differences in brain circuitry that likely underlie differences in functionality. The human species possesses two complementary, yet distinct, universal communication systems-language and music. School of Human Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Perth, WA, Australia. ![]()
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